A Review of Literature on Immigration in Developed Countries: Determinants of Employment Discrimination
Main Article Content
Abstract
Despite having endorsed civil rights and equality of all individuals, society nowadays remains segregated in many aspects. Apparently, those with unfamiliar styles (culture, communication, religion, etc.) have always been the centre of this malaise, which is getting even more serious with the recent immigrant crisis in Europe. Hence, the goal of this literature review is to gain an understanding of research into the causes of prejudice and discrimination so far. Specified in this paper are the reasons why such employment discrimination still exists, which may come down to one or more of five major factors: Ethnicity and Religion, Culture Norms and Values, Educational Level, Historical and Contemporary Issues and Organizational Environment. None alone would be solely sufficient to explain the causes; hence, this paper will attempt to connect them into one integrated model. Ethically, this paper pointed out not only the roots but also the solutions to them. Though, it is a complex issue, requiring a systematic solution, societal awareness and action. However, the paper has given details of potential future directions from household to national level that may simplify the complexity of the solutions.
Keywords:
Immigrants, employment discrimination, prejudice, ethnic conflict, foreign-born worker.
References
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[38] M. Radke, H.G. Trager, H. Davis, Social perceptions and attitudes of children, Genetic Psychology Monographs 40 (1949) 327-447.
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[41] M. Semyonov, T. Raijman, A. Gorodzeisky, The Rise of Anti-foreigner Sentiment in European Societies, 1988-2000, American Sociological Review 71(3) (2006) 426-449.
[42] J. Stumpf, The Crimmigration Crisis: Immigrants, Crime and Sovereign Power, American University Law Review 56 (2006) 367-419.
[43] M. Bianchi, P. Buonanno, P. Pinotti, Do Immigrants Cause Crime? Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(6) (2012) 1318-1347.
[44] M. Tonry, Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration, Crime and Justice 21 (1997) 1-29.
[45] Y. Algan, C. Dustmann, A. Glitz, A. Manning, The Economic Situation of First and Second‐Generation Immigrants in France, Germany and the United Kingdom, The Economic Journal 120(542) (2010) F4-F30.
[46] M. Semyonov, R. Raijman, A. Yom-Tov, Labor Market Competition, Perceived Threat, and Endorsement of Economic Discrimination against Foreign Workers in Israel, Social Problems 49(3) (2002) 416-431.
[47] A.H. Midtbøen, The Invisible Second Generation? Statistical Discrimination and Immigrant Stereotypes in Employment Processes in Norway, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40(10) (2014) 1657-1675.
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[58] L.M. Saucedo, The Three Theories of Discrimination in the Brown Collar Workplace, University of Chicago Legal Forum 1 (2009) 1-37.
[59] T.A. Kochan, C.A. Riordan, Employment relations and growing income inequality: Causes and potential options for its reversal, Journal of Industrial Relations 58(3) (2016) 419-440.
[60] A.W. Smith, Cohorts, education, and the evolution of tolerance, Social Science Research 14(3) (1985)
205-225.
[61] T.F. Pettigrew, R.W. Meertens, Subtle and blatant prejudice in western Europe, European Journal of Social Psychology 25(1) (1995) 57-75.
[62] G. Haddock, M.P. Zanna, V.M. Esses, Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65(6) (1993) 1105-1118.
[63] C.R. Chandler, Y. Tsai, Social factors influencing immigration attitudes: An analysis of data from the General Social Survey, The Social Science Journal, 38(2) (2001) 177-188.
[64] P. Scheepers, Ethnic Exclusionism in European Countries, Public Opposition to Civil Rights for Legal Migrants as a Response to Perceived Ethnic Threat, European Sociological Review 18(1) (2002) 17-34.
[65] H. Blumer, Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position, The Pacific Sociological Review 1(1) (1958) 3-7.
[66] M. Carlsson, D.O. Rooth, Evidence of ethnic discrimination in the Swedish labor market using experimental data, Labour Economics 14(4) (2007) 716-729.
[67] H.F. Chang, Immigration and the Workplace: Immigration Restrictions as Employment Discrimination, Faculty Scholarship, 2003.
[68] C.R. Kothari, Research methodology methods & techniques, New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers, 2004.
[69] E. Hello, P. Scheepers, M. Gijsberts, Education and Ethnic Prejudice in Europe: Explanations for cross-national variances in the educational effect on ethnic prejudice, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 46(1) (2002) 5-24.
[70] A. Bernhardt, P. Osterman, Organizing for Good Jobs: Recent Developments and New Challenges, Work and Occupations 44(1) (2017) 89-112
[71] K. Bobo, Wage theft in America: why millions of working Americans are not getting paid-and what we can do about it, New York, N.Y, London, New Press, 2011.
[72] R.M. Locke, The Promise and limits of private power: promoting labor standards in a global economy, Cambridge studies in comparative politics, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
[2] Bureau of Labor Statistics, Foreign-born workers: labor force characteristics-2017, 2018.
[3] M. Vogt, Discrimination against immigrants in the workplace.ghttps://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/article/2005/discrimination-against-immigrants-in-the-workplace/, 2018 (accessed 3 December 2018).
[4] A. Agudelo-Suárez, D. Gil-González, E. Ronda-Pérez, V. Porthé, G. Paramio-Pérez, A.M. García,
A. Garí), Discrimination, work and health in immigrant populations in Spain, Social Science & Medicine 68(10) (2009) 1866-1874.
[5] P. Oreopoulos, Why Do Skilled Immigrants Struggle in the Labor Market? A Field Experiment with Six Thousand Resumes, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/papers/w15036.pdf/, 2009 (accessed 3 December 2018).
[6] S.T. Fiske, Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination, In: The handbook of social psychology, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1998, pp. 357-411.
[7] G. Thornicroft, D. Rose, A. Kassam, N. Sartorius, Stigma: Ignorance, prejudice or discrimination? British Journal of Psychiatry 190(03) (2007) 192-193.
[8] C.S. Crandall, A. Eshleman, A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice, Psychological Bulletin 129(3) (2003) 414-446.
[9] G.W. Allport, The nature of prejudice. Unabridged, 25th anniversary ed, Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co, 1954.
[10] G. Myrdal, An American dilemma: The Negro problem and modern democracy, New York,
Harper, 1944.
[11] R.W. Rogers, S. Prentice-Dunn, Deindividuation and anger-mediated interracial aggression: Unmasking regressive racism, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41(1) (1981) 63-73.
[12] T. Cox, Cultural diversity in organizations: theory, research & practice, Paperback, San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1993.
[13] E. Goffman, Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963.
[14] S.F. Messner, Economic Discrimination and Societal Homicide Rates: Further Evidence on the Cost of Inequality, American Sociological Review 54(4) (1989) 597-611.
[15] J.M. Jones, Racism: A cultural analysis of the problem, In: Prejudice, discrimination, and racism, New York, NY: Academic Press, 1986, pp. 279-314.
[16] M.J. Gelfand, L.H. Nishii, J.L. Raver, B. Schneider, Discrimination in organizations: An organizational-level systems perspective. In: Discrimination at work: the psychological and organizational bases, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2005, pp. 89-118.
[17] J. Dietz, Introduction to the special issue on employment discrimination against immigrants J. Dietz (ed.), Journal of Managerial Psychology 25(2) (2010) 104-112.
[18] C.C. Chen, A. Rao, I.Y. Ren, Glass ceiling for the foreign born: Perspectives from Asian-born American R&D scientists, Asian American Journal of Psychology 4(4) (2013) 249-257.
[19] L. Bobo, V.L. Hutchings, Perceptions of Racial Group Competition: Extending Blumer’s Theory of Group Position to a Multiracial Social Context, American Sociological Review 61(6) (1996) 951-972.
[20] C. McCauley, C.L. Stitt, M. Segal, Stereotyping: From prejudice to prediction, Psychological Bulletin, 87(1) (1980) 195-208.
[21] D.R. Kinder, T. Mendelberg, Cracks in American Apartheid: The Political Impact of Prejudice among Desegregated Whites, The Journal of Politics 57(2) (1995) 402-424.
[22] J.G. Reitz, A. Verma, Immigration, Race and Labor: Unionization and Wages in the Canadian Labor Market. Industrial Relations 43(4) (2004) 835-854.
[23] R. Swidinsky, M. Swidinsky, The Relative Earnings of Visible Minorities in Canada: New Evidence from the 1996 Census, Relations industrielles 57(4) (2002) 630-659.
[24] R.W. Meertens, T.F. Pettigrew, Is Subtle Prejudice Really Prejudice? Public Opinion Quarterly Special Issue on Race 61(1) (1997) 54-71.
[25] L.E. Petersen, J. Dietz, Prejudice and Enforcement of Workforce Homogeneity as Explanations for Employment Discrimination1, Journal of Applied Social Psychology 35(1) (2005) 144-159.
[26] P.G. Devine, Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56(1) (1989) 5-18.
[27] C.D. Batson, P. Schoenrade, W.L. Ventis, C.D. Batson, Religion and the individual: A social-psychological perspective, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
[28] G.W. Allport, J.M. Ross, Personal religious orientation and prejudice, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 5(4) (1967) 432-443.
[29] L. Isherwood, D. McEwan, Introducing feminist theology, Sheffield: Academic Press, 1994.
[30] Z. Strabac, O. Listhaug, Anti-Muslim prejudice in Europe: A multilevel analysis of survey data from 30 countries, Social Science Research 37(1) (2008) 268-286.
[31] H. Tajfel, Cognitive Aspects of Prejudice, Journal of Social Issues 25(4) (1969) 79-97.
[32] C. Ogan, L. Willnat, R. Pennington, M. Bashir, The rise of anti-Muslim prejudice: Media and Islamophobia in Europe and the United States, International Communication Gazette 76(1) (2014) 27-46.
[33] E.S. Bogardus, Immigration and race attitudes, Oxford, Heath, 1928.
[34] D. Katz, K.W. Braly, Racial prejudice and racial stereotypes The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 30(2) (1935) 175-193.
[35] S.L. Gaertner, J.F. Dovidio, The aversive form of racism, In: Prejudice, discrimination and racism, New York: Academic Press, 1986.
[36] F.E. Aboud, Children and prejudice, Social psychology and society, Oxford, OX, UK, Cambridge, MA, USA: B. Blackwell, 1989.
[37] S.H. Marshall, C. Markstrom-Adams, Attitudes on Interfaith Dating Among Jewish Adolescents: Contextual and Developmental Considerations, Journal of Family Issues 16(6) (1995) 787-811.
[38] M. Radke, H.G. Trager, H. Davis, Social perceptions and attitudes of children, Genetic Psychology Monographs 40 (1949) 327-447.
[39] C. Bagley, Verma, Racial Prejudice, The Individual and Society, Westmead, England: Saxon House. https://academic.oup.com/sf/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/sf/60.2.621/, 1979 (accessed 20 March 2019).
[40] G. Gerbner, L. Gross, M. Morgan, N. Signorielli, J. Shanahan, Growing up with television: Cultivation processes, In: Media effects: Advance in theory and research, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002,
pp. 43-67.
[41] M. Semyonov, T. Raijman, A. Gorodzeisky, The Rise of Anti-foreigner Sentiment in European Societies, 1988-2000, American Sociological Review 71(3) (2006) 426-449.
[42] J. Stumpf, The Crimmigration Crisis: Immigrants, Crime and Sovereign Power, American University Law Review 56 (2006) 367-419.
[43] M. Bianchi, P. Buonanno, P. Pinotti, Do Immigrants Cause Crime? Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(6) (2012) 1318-1347.
[44] M. Tonry, Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration, Crime and Justice 21 (1997) 1-29.
[45] Y. Algan, C. Dustmann, A. Glitz, A. Manning, The Economic Situation of First and Second‐Generation Immigrants in France, Germany and the United Kingdom, The Economic Journal 120(542) (2010) F4-F30.
[46] M. Semyonov, R. Raijman, A. Yom-Tov, Labor Market Competition, Perceived Threat, and Endorsement of Economic Discrimination against Foreign Workers in Israel, Social Problems 49(3) (2002) 416-431.
[47] A.H. Midtbøen, The Invisible Second Generation? Statistical Discrimination and Immigrant Stereotypes in Employment Processes in Norway, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40(10) (2014) 1657-1675.
[48] M. Spence, Globalization and Unemployment. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2011-06-02/globalization-and-unemployment/, 2011 (accessed 3 December 2018).
[49] R. Inglehart, C. Welzel, Modernization, cultural change, and democracy: the human development sequence, Cambridge, UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
[50] M.A.D. Pietro, E.M. Girsberger, A. Vuille, (n.d.). Document II/4 - The Impact of Globalisation on Employment, 2007, pp. 1-13.
[51] E. Ruggiero, Migration and Remittances, Problems of Economic Transition 48(3) (2015) 54-83.
[52] International Labour Organization, Enhancing the Employment Impact of Globalization. http://www.ilo.org/integration/themes/pci/international/WCMS_084539/lang--en/index.htm/, 2004 (accessed 3 December 2018).
[53] P. McGovern, Immigration, Labour Markets and Employment Relations: Problems and Prospects, British Journal of Industrial Relations 45(2) (2007) 217-235.
[54] P. Christina, In Europe, nationalism rising. Harvard Gazettehttps://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2017/02/in-europe-nationalisms-rising/, 2017 (accessed 5 December 2018).
[55] B. Nigel, The Resurgence of Nationalism, April 2018. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-human-beast/201804/the-resurgence-nationalism/, 2018 (accessed 5 December 2018).
[56] D.R. Hekman, K. Aquino, B.P. Owens, T.R. Mitchell, P. Schilpzand, K. Leavitt, An Examination of Whether and How Racial and Gender Biases Influence Customer Satisfaction, Academy of Management Journal 53(2) (2010) 238-264.
[57] I. Brekke, A. Mastekaasa, Highly educated immigrants in the Norwegian labour market: permanent disadvantage? Work, Employment and Society 22(3) (1008) 507-526.
[58] L.M. Saucedo, The Three Theories of Discrimination in the Brown Collar Workplace, University of Chicago Legal Forum 1 (2009) 1-37.
[59] T.A. Kochan, C.A. Riordan, Employment relations and growing income inequality: Causes and potential options for its reversal, Journal of Industrial Relations 58(3) (2016) 419-440.
[60] A.W. Smith, Cohorts, education, and the evolution of tolerance, Social Science Research 14(3) (1985)
205-225.
[61] T.F. Pettigrew, R.W. Meertens, Subtle and blatant prejudice in western Europe, European Journal of Social Psychology 25(1) (1995) 57-75.
[62] G. Haddock, M.P. Zanna, V.M. Esses, Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65(6) (1993) 1105-1118.
[63] C.R. Chandler, Y. Tsai, Social factors influencing immigration attitudes: An analysis of data from the General Social Survey, The Social Science Journal, 38(2) (2001) 177-188.
[64] P. Scheepers, Ethnic Exclusionism in European Countries, Public Opposition to Civil Rights for Legal Migrants as a Response to Perceived Ethnic Threat, European Sociological Review 18(1) (2002) 17-34.
[65] H. Blumer, Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position, The Pacific Sociological Review 1(1) (1958) 3-7.
[66] M. Carlsson, D.O. Rooth, Evidence of ethnic discrimination in the Swedish labor market using experimental data, Labour Economics 14(4) (2007) 716-729.
[67] H.F. Chang, Immigration and the Workplace: Immigration Restrictions as Employment Discrimination, Faculty Scholarship, 2003.
[68] C.R. Kothari, Research methodology methods & techniques, New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers, 2004.
[69] E. Hello, P. Scheepers, M. Gijsberts, Education and Ethnic Prejudice in Europe: Explanations for cross-national variances in the educational effect on ethnic prejudice, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 46(1) (2002) 5-24.
[70] A. Bernhardt, P. Osterman, Organizing for Good Jobs: Recent Developments and New Challenges, Work and Occupations 44(1) (2017) 89-112
[71] K. Bobo, Wage theft in America: why millions of working Americans are not getting paid-and what we can do about it, New York, N.Y, London, New Press, 2011.
[72] R.M. Locke, The Promise and limits of private power: promoting labor standards in a global economy, Cambridge studies in comparative politics, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.