How Can the Embodiment of Women Leadership Alter the Stereotypically Masculine Schema for Leadership?
Main Article Content
Abstract
Nowadays, the perception of leadership is different from the traditional one that used to align to agentic characteristics. However, from the top of mind, people normally think about masculine characteristics when referring to the concept of leadership. This can be so disadvantageous for female leaders in that they can be trapped in the line between two perspectives: one of their natural characteristics and one that is suitable for stereotypical definitions of leadership. By in-depth interview with nine women in top management positions in (partly) private sectors in Vietnam, the study aims to explore how the embodiment of female leadership can change the stereotypically masculine schema for leadership. An emerging finding is that women do not try to manifest their appearance and competency as recommended in theory. Instead, they embody their leadership by bringing happiness to others, by helping others to achieve high results and making others satisfied in their life and work. More importantly, they build up their followership with sincere hearts, which is relevant to the female instincts of caring, and nurturing and with their natural skills and warm hearts. Accordingly, this leads to a recommendation that women in leadership should not blur their natural characteristics. Instead, they should consider their distinctive strengths for their further development.
Keywords:
Embodiment, women leadership, stereotype, masculine.
References
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[3] J. Lammers, A. Gast, “Stressing the Advantages of Female Leadership Can Place Women at a Disadvantage”, Social Psychology, 2017.
[4] G.J. Lemoine, I. Aggarwal, L.B. Steed, “When women emerge as leaders: Effects of extraversion and gender composition in groups”, The Leadership Quarterly 27(3) (2016) 470-486.
[5] A.H. Eagly, “Female leadership advantage and disadvantage: Resolving the contradictions”, Psychology of Women Quarterly 31(1) (2007) 1-12.
[6] A.H. Eagly, L.L. Carli, Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders, Harvard Business Press, 2007.
[7] H.E. Daldrup-Link, “The Fermi Paradox in STEM - Where Are the Women Leaders?”, Molecular Imaging and Biology 19(6) (2017) 807-809.
[8] P. Taylor, “A paradox in public attitudes. Men or women: Who’s the better leader”, Washington, DC: Pew Research Center Publication, SGIM, 2010,
[9] G.N. Powell, D.A. Butterfield, “Investigating the “glass ceiling” phenomenon: An empirical study of actual promotions to top management”, Academy of Management Journal 37(1) (1994) 68-86.
[10] D.J. Maume Jr, “Glass ceilings and glass escalators: Occupational segregation and race and sex differences in managerial promotions”, Work and Occupations 26(4) (1999) 483-509.
[11] M.E. Barreto, M.K. Ryan, M.T. Schmitt, The glass ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality, American Psychological Association, 2009.
[12] V.E. Schein, “The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics”, Journal of Applied Psychology 57(2) (1973) 95-100.
[13] M. Festing, A. Kornau, L. Schäfer, “Think talent-think male? A comparative case study analysis of gender inclusion in talent management practices in the German media industry”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management 26(6) (2015) 707-732.
[14] S.A. Haslam, M.K. Ryan, “The road to the glass cliff: Differences in the perceived suitability of men and women for leadership positions in succeeding and failing organizations”, The Leadership Quarterly 19(5) (2008) 530-546.
[15] S. Bruckmüller, et al., “Beyond the glass ceiling: The glass cliff and its lessons for organizational policy”, Social Issues and Policy Review 8(1) (2014) 202-232.
[16] P. Tharenou, “Why so few female senior academics?”, Australian Journal of Management, 19(2) (1994) 219-228.
[17] K.E. Tilbrook, “An exploration of the current under-representation of senior women managers in Australian universities”, Women in Management Review 13(8) (1998) 291-298.
[18] S.C. Paustian-Underdahl, L.S. Walker,
D.J. Woehr, “Gender and perceptions of leadership effectiveness: A meta-analysis of contextual moderators”, Journal of Applied Psychology 99(6) (2014) 1129-1145.
[19] A.H. Eagly, S.J. Karau, “Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders”, Psychological Review 109(3) (2020) 573-598.
[20] M.M. Singh, C. SDurgaPrasad, “The Leadership challenges amongst women managers: An Investigation”, IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 2014, pp. 50-55.
[21] A. Strathern, P.J. Stewart, “Embodiment theory in performance and performativity”, Journal of Ritual Studies 22(1) (2008) 67-71.
[22] D.E. Re, D.I. Perrett, “The effects of facial adiposity on attractiveness and perceived leadership ability”, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 67(4) (2014) 676-686.
[23] I. Kapasi, K.J. Sang, R. Sitko, “Gender, authentic leadership and identity: analysis of women leaders’ autobiographies”, Gender in Management: An International Journal 31(5/6) (2016) 339-358.
[24] R. Barbulescu, H. Ibarra, “Identity as narrative: Overcoming identity gaps during work role transitions”, INSEAD Working Papers Collection 27 (2008) 1-39.
[25] T.J. Watson, “Narrative, life story and manager identity: A case study in autobiographical identity work”, Human Relations 62(3) (2009) 425-452.
[26] E. Bell, A. Sinclair, “Bodies, sexualities and women leaders in popular culture: From spectacle to metapicture”, Gender in Management: An International Journal 31(5/6) (2016) 322-338.
[27] A. Pullen, C. Rhodes, “It’s all about me!: Gendered narcissism and leaders’ identity work”, Leadership 4(1) (2008) 5-25.
[28] H. Etzkowitz, C. Kemelgor, B. Uzzi, Athena unbound: The advancement of women in science and technology, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
[29] A.H. Eagly, S.J. Karau, M.G. Makhijani, Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: a meta-analysis, American Psychological Association, 1995.
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[31] J.J. Young, A comparison of leadership styles and gender role internalization among female managers in the United States, Spalding University, 2009.
[32] J.B. Rosener, “Ways women lead”, Harvard Business Review 68(6) (1990) 119-125.
[33] C.C. Chao, D. Tian, “Culturally universal or culturally specific: A comparative study of anticipated female leadership styles in Taiwan and the United States”, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies 18(1) (2011) 64-79.
[34] B.M. Bass, B.J. Avolio, Concepts of leadership, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997.
[35] G. Morgan, Images of Organization, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2006.
[36] K.A. Arnold et al., “Leadership styles, emotion regulation, and burnout”, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 20(4) (2015) 481-490.
[37] B.J. Avolio et al., “Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors”, The leadership Quarterly 15(6) (2004) 801-823.
[38] H. Liu, L. Cutcher, D. Grant, “Doing authenticity: The gendered construction of authentic leadership”, Gender, Work & Organization 22(3) (2015) 237-255.
[39] S. Benhabib, D. Cornell, Feminism as critique: On the politics of gender, 1987.
[40] A.H. Eagly, S.J. Karau, “Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60(5) (1991) 685-710.
[41] K. Korabik, R. Ayman, “Gender and leadership in the corporate world: A multiperspective model”, Women and Leadership: Transforming Visions and Diverse Voices, 2007, pp. 106-124.
[42] G.V. Krishnan, L.M. Parsons, “Getting to the bottom line: An exploration of gender and earnings quality”, Journal of Business Ethics 78(1-2) (2008) 65-76.
[43] G. Wood, “Gender stereotypical attitudes: past, present and future influences on women's career advancement”, Equal Opportunities International 27(7) (2008) 613-628.
[44] B. Mihalčová, M. Pružinský, B. Gontkovičová, “The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes in the Work of Managers”, Procedia Economics and Finance 23 (2015) 1260-1265.
[45] L. Nell, “Women on leadership? Perspectives from postgraduate theology students through the lenses of social identity”, Acta Theologica 35(1) (2015) 115-133.
[46] R.J. Ely, H. Ibarra, D.M. Kolb, “Taking gender into account: Theory and design for women's leadership development programs”, Academy of Management Learning & Education 10(3) (2011) 474-493.
[47] N. Ellemers et al., “Women in high places: When and why promoting women into top positions can harm them individually or as a group (and how to prevent this)”, Research in Organizational Behavior 32 (2012) 163-187.
[48] M.A. Hogg, D. Van Knippenberg, “Social identity and leadership processes in groups”, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 35 (2003) 1-52.
[49] J.D. Yoder, “Making leadership work more effectively for women”, Journal of Social Issues, 57(4) (2001) 815-828.
[50] N.N. Tuyen, “Transitional economy, technological change and women’s employment: The case of Vietnam”, Gender, Technology and Development 3(1) (1999) 43-64.
[51] C. Li, “Confucianism and feminist concerns: Overcoming the Confucian “Gender complex”, Journal of Chinese Philosophy 27(2) (2000) 187-199.
[52] H.T.T. THuong, “Vietnamese Women and Leadership in the 20th Century: Prospects for Vietnamese Women Leaders in the 21st Century”, Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies 16(1) (2008) 181-198.
[53] Hill, C.E., Consensual qualitative research: A practical resource for investigating social science phenomena, American Psychological Association, 2012.
[54] J.A. Smith, M. Osborn, Interpretative phenomenological analysis, Doing social psychology research, 2004, pp. 229-254.