Ecological and Public Health Risk Assessment of Potential Toxic Elements in Road Dust from the Largest Industrial Zone in Da Nang City and Its Vicinity
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study investigates the ecological and human health risks associated with exposure to potential toxic elements (PTEs), including As, Cd, Mn, and Zn, in road dust from the largest industrial zone (IZ) in Da Nang City, Vietnam, and adjacent urban areas (UA). Ecological risk was assessed using the potential ecological risk index for individual elements (Ei) and the total potential ecological risk index (PER). Human health risk was evaluated through the non-carcinogenic hazard index (HI) and the total carcinogenic risk (TCR) for both children and adults. The findings revealed that ecological risk levels in the IZ were significantly higher than in the UA. However, both Ei and PER were classified as “Low”, with As being the predominant contributor. Health risk assessment indicated that HI and TCR values were consistently higher in children than in adults, and higher in the IZ compared to the UA. While HI values across all areas were below the threshold of 1 (indicating “Safe”), specific IZ sites recorded HI values for children exceeding 0.7, suggesting potential concern. The mean TCR values for children in the IZ (1.49×10-5) and UA (1.05×10-5) exceeded the “Acceptable” range (1×10-6 - 1×10-5), whereas adult TCR values remained within permissible limits. As was the dominant contributor to both HI and TCR, followed by Pb. Compared with previous studies, the HI and TCR values we found were lower; however, potential risks remain, particularly for children, a vulnerable population due to physiological and behavioral factors. These results underscore the need for targeted management strategies focusing on As and Pb, coupled with emission control and environmental quality improvement, to reduce ecological risks and protect community health in industrial and urban settings.
Keywords: Potential toxic elements, road dust, ecological risk, health risk, Da Nang.
Keywords:
Potential toxic elements, road dust, ecological risk, health risk, Da Nang.
References
[1] L. Chen et al., Sources and Human Health Risks Associated with Potentially Toxic Elements (Ptes) in Urban Dust: A Global Perspective, Environment International, Vol. 187, No., 2024, pp. 108708, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2024.108708.
[2] M. Sager, Urban Soils and Road Dust - Civilization Effects and Metal Pollution - A Review, Environments. Vol. 7, No. 11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/environments7110098.
[3] A. Shahab et al., A Comprehensive Review on Pollution Status and Associated Health Risk Assessment of Human Exposure to Selected Heavy Metals in Road Dust Across Different Cities of the World, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2023, pp. 585-606, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01255-3.
[4] USEPA, Exposure Factors Handbook 2011 Edition (Final Report), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 2011, https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=236252 (accessed on: February 1st, 2025).
[5] R. Niede, D. K. Benbi, Integrated Review of the Nexus Between Toxic Elements in the Environment and Human Health, AIMS Public Health, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2022, pp. 758-789, https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2022052.
[6] Y. Yang, et al., Exploring the Environmental Risks And Seasonal Variations of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Fine Road Dust in Resource-Based Cities Based on Monte Carlo Simulation, Geo-Detector and Random Forest Model, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 473, 2024,
pp. 134708, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134708.
[7] S. Dytłow, B. G. Kostrubiec, Concentration of Heavy Metals in Street Dust: An Implication of Using Different Geochemical Background Data in Estimating the Level of Heavy Metal Pollution, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2021, pp. 521-535, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00726-9.
[8] L. H. V. Lima, C. W. A. D. Nascimento, F. B. V. D. Silva, P. R. M. Araújo, Baseline Concentrations, Source Apportionment, and Probabilistic Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Urban Street Dust in Northeast Brazil, Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 858, 2023, pp. 159750, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159750.
[9] A. J. Adewumi, Heavy Metals in Soils and Road Dust in Akure City, Southwest Nigeria: Pollution, Sources, and Ecological and Health Risks, Exposure and Health, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2022,
pp. 375-392, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-021-00456-y.
[10] W. Zgłobicki, M. Telecka, Heavy Metals in Urban Street Dust: Health Risk Assessment (Lublin City, E Poland), Applied Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 9, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/app11094092.
[11] T. T. T. Nguyen et al., Comprehensive Insight into Heavy Metal(Loid)s in Road Dust From Industrial and Urban Areas in Northern Vietnam: Concentrations, Fractionation Characteristics, and Risk Assessment, International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 2022,
pp. 1-20, https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2098478.
[12] N. D. Dat et al., Pollution Characteristics, Associated Risks, and Possible Sources of Heavy Metals in Road Dust Collected from Different Areas of a Metropolis in Vietnam, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 45, No. 11, 2023, pp. 7889-7907, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01696-4.
[13] N. D. Dat et al., Contamination, Source Attribution, and Potential Health Risks of Heavy Metals in Street Dust of a Metropolitan Area in Southern Vietnam, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 28, No. 36, 2021,
p. 50405-50419, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14246-1.
[14] N. T. H. Tinh, B. T. Quoc, Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination and Sources in Road Dust from the Da Nang's Largest Industrial Zone and Surrounding Areas, VNU Journal of Science: Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2025, pp. 100-115, https://doi.org/10.25073/2588-1094/vnuees.5179.
[15] X. Ke et al., Ecological Risk Assessment and Source Identification for Heavy Metals in Surface Sediment from the Liaohe River Protected Area, China, Chemosphere, Vol. 175, 2017, pp. 473-481, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.02.029.
[16] N. F. Soliman, S. M. Nasr, M. A. Okbah, Potential Ecological Risk of Heavy Metals in Sediments from The Mediterranean Coast, Egypt, Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2015, pp. 70, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40201-015-0223-x.
[17] G. Suresh, P. Sutharsan, V. Ramasamy, R. Venkatachalapathy, Assessment of Spatial Distribution and Potential Ecological Risk of the Heavy Metals in Relation to Granulometric Contents of Veeranam Lake Sediments, India, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 84, 2012, pp. 117-124, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.06.027.
[18] V. T. Nguyen et al., Characteristics and Risk Assessment of 16 Metals in Street Dust Collected from a Highway in a Densely Populated Metropolitan Area of Vietnam, Atmosphere,
Vol. 12, No. 12, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121548.
[19] T. H. Phi et al., Spatial Distribution of Elemental Concentrations in Street Dust of Hanoi, Vietnam, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 98, No. 2, 2017, pp. 277-282, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-016-2001-6.
[20] L. Hakanson, An Ecological Risk Index for Aquatic Pollution Control. A Sedimentological Approach, Water Research, Vol. 14, No. 8, 1980, pp. 975-1001,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(80)90143-8.
[21] H. A. A. Swadi et al., Sources, Toxicity Potential, and Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals-Laden Soil and Dust of Urban and Suburban Areas as Affected by Industrial and Mining Activities, Scientific Reports, Vol. 12,
No. 1, 2022, pp. 8972, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-12345-8.
[22] O. Isinkaralar, K. Isinkaralar, E. P. Bayraktar, Monitoring the Spatial Distribution Pattern According To Urban Land Use And Health Risk Assessment on Potential Toxic Metal Contamination Via Street Dust in Ankara, Türkiye, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment,
Vol. 195, No. 9, 2023, pp. 1085, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11705-9.
[23] AIRC, Agents Classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer Monographs, 2014, https://monographs.iarc.who.int/agents-classified-by-the-iarc/ (accessed on: February 1st, 2025).
[24] USEPA, Supplemental Guidance for Developing Soil Screening Levels for Superfund Sites, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response Washington DC, 2002, https://semspub.epa.gov/work/HQ/175878.pdf.
[25] USEPA, Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual Supplemental Guidance Standard Default Exposure Factors Interim Final.
[26] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991, https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-11/documents/OSWERdirective9285.6-03.pdf (accessed on: February 1st, 2025).
[27] N. T. Tran et al., Triple Burden of Malnutrition Among Vietnamese 0·5–11-year-old Children in 2020–2021: results of Seanuts II Vietnam, Public Health Nutrition, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2024, pp. e259, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980024001186.
[28] WHO, National Survey on the Risk Factors of Noncommunicable Diseases in Viet Nam, 2021, World Health Organization, Viet Nam, 2025, https://extranet.who.int/ncdsmicrodata/index.php/catalog/948/related-materials (accessed on: February 1st, 2025).
[29] A. Bourliva et al., Seasonal and Spatial Variations of Magnetic Susceptibility and Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Road Dusts of Thessaloniki City, Greece: A One-year Monitoring Period, Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 639, 2018, pp. 417-427, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.170.
[30] N. Ghanavati, A. Nazarpour,M. J. Watts, Status, Source, Ecological and Health Risk Assessment of Toxic Metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Pahs) in Street Dust of Abadan, Iran, CATENA, Vol. 177, 2019, pp. 246-259, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.02.022.
[31] E. Konstantinova et al., Pollution Status and Human Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Street Dust of Tyumen City, Russia, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2022, pp. 409-432, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00692-2.
[32] M. Kara, Assessment of Sources and Pollution State of Trace and Toxic Elements in Street Dust In a Metropolitan City, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 42, No. 10, 2020, pp. 3213-3229, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00560-z.
[33] F. J. Li, H. W. Yang, R. Ayyamperumal,Y. Liu, Pollution, Sources, and Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Urban Areas Around Industrialization and Urbanization-Northwest China, Chemosphere, Vol. 308, 2022, pp. 136396, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136396.
[34] M. Safiur Rahman et al., Assessing Risk to Human Health for Heavy Metal Contamination Through Street Dust in The Southeast Asian Megacity: Dhaka, Bangladesh, Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 660, 2019, pp. 1610-1622, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.425.
[35] M. Heidari, T. Darijani,V. Alipour, Heavy Metal Pollution of Road Dust in a City And Its Highly Polluted Suburb; Quantitative Source Apportionment and Source-Specific Ecological and Health Risk Assessment, Chemosphere,
Vol. 273, 2021, pp. 129656, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129656.
[36] R. U. Goyes et al., Street Dust from a Heavily-Populated and Industrialized City: Evaluation of Spatial Distribution, Origins, Pollution, Ecological Risks and Human Health Repercussions, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety,
Vol. 159, 2018, pp. 198-204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.04.054.
[37] H. Khademi et al., Distribution of Metal(Loid)s in Particle Size Fraction in Urban Soil and Street Dust: Influence of Population Density, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 42, No. 12, 2020, pp. 4341-4354, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00515-4.
[38] Q. Han et al., Health Risk Assessment and Bioaccessibilities of Heavy Metals for Children in Soil and Dust from Urban Parks and Schools of Jiaozuo, China, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 191, 2020, pp. 110157, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110157.
[2] M. Sager, Urban Soils and Road Dust - Civilization Effects and Metal Pollution - A Review, Environments. Vol. 7, No. 11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/environments7110098.
[3] A. Shahab et al., A Comprehensive Review on Pollution Status and Associated Health Risk Assessment of Human Exposure to Selected Heavy Metals in Road Dust Across Different Cities of the World, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2023, pp. 585-606, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01255-3.
[4] USEPA, Exposure Factors Handbook 2011 Edition (Final Report), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 2011, https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=236252 (accessed on: February 1st, 2025).
[5] R. Niede, D. K. Benbi, Integrated Review of the Nexus Between Toxic Elements in the Environment and Human Health, AIMS Public Health, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2022, pp. 758-789, https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2022052.
[6] Y. Yang, et al., Exploring the Environmental Risks And Seasonal Variations of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Fine Road Dust in Resource-Based Cities Based on Monte Carlo Simulation, Geo-Detector and Random Forest Model, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 473, 2024,
pp. 134708, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134708.
[7] S. Dytłow, B. G. Kostrubiec, Concentration of Heavy Metals in Street Dust: An Implication of Using Different Geochemical Background Data in Estimating the Level of Heavy Metal Pollution, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2021, pp. 521-535, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00726-9.
[8] L. H. V. Lima, C. W. A. D. Nascimento, F. B. V. D. Silva, P. R. M. Araújo, Baseline Concentrations, Source Apportionment, and Probabilistic Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Urban Street Dust in Northeast Brazil, Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 858, 2023, pp. 159750, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159750.
[9] A. J. Adewumi, Heavy Metals in Soils and Road Dust in Akure City, Southwest Nigeria: Pollution, Sources, and Ecological and Health Risks, Exposure and Health, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2022,
pp. 375-392, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-021-00456-y.
[10] W. Zgłobicki, M. Telecka, Heavy Metals in Urban Street Dust: Health Risk Assessment (Lublin City, E Poland), Applied Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 9, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/app11094092.
[11] T. T. T. Nguyen et al., Comprehensive Insight into Heavy Metal(Loid)s in Road Dust From Industrial and Urban Areas in Northern Vietnam: Concentrations, Fractionation Characteristics, and Risk Assessment, International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 2022,
pp. 1-20, https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2098478.
[12] N. D. Dat et al., Pollution Characteristics, Associated Risks, and Possible Sources of Heavy Metals in Road Dust Collected from Different Areas of a Metropolis in Vietnam, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 45, No. 11, 2023, pp. 7889-7907, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01696-4.
[13] N. D. Dat et al., Contamination, Source Attribution, and Potential Health Risks of Heavy Metals in Street Dust of a Metropolitan Area in Southern Vietnam, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 28, No. 36, 2021,
p. 50405-50419, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14246-1.
[14] N. T. H. Tinh, B. T. Quoc, Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination and Sources in Road Dust from the Da Nang's Largest Industrial Zone and Surrounding Areas, VNU Journal of Science: Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2025, pp. 100-115, https://doi.org/10.25073/2588-1094/vnuees.5179.
[15] X. Ke et al., Ecological Risk Assessment and Source Identification for Heavy Metals in Surface Sediment from the Liaohe River Protected Area, China, Chemosphere, Vol. 175, 2017, pp. 473-481, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.02.029.
[16] N. F. Soliman, S. M. Nasr, M. A. Okbah, Potential Ecological Risk of Heavy Metals in Sediments from The Mediterranean Coast, Egypt, Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2015, pp. 70, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40201-015-0223-x.
[17] G. Suresh, P. Sutharsan, V. Ramasamy, R. Venkatachalapathy, Assessment of Spatial Distribution and Potential Ecological Risk of the Heavy Metals in Relation to Granulometric Contents of Veeranam Lake Sediments, India, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 84, 2012, pp. 117-124, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.06.027.
[18] V. T. Nguyen et al., Characteristics and Risk Assessment of 16 Metals in Street Dust Collected from a Highway in a Densely Populated Metropolitan Area of Vietnam, Atmosphere,
Vol. 12, No. 12, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121548.
[19] T. H. Phi et al., Spatial Distribution of Elemental Concentrations in Street Dust of Hanoi, Vietnam, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 98, No. 2, 2017, pp. 277-282, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-016-2001-6.
[20] L. Hakanson, An Ecological Risk Index for Aquatic Pollution Control. A Sedimentological Approach, Water Research, Vol. 14, No. 8, 1980, pp. 975-1001,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(80)90143-8.
[21] H. A. A. Swadi et al., Sources, Toxicity Potential, and Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals-Laden Soil and Dust of Urban and Suburban Areas as Affected by Industrial and Mining Activities, Scientific Reports, Vol. 12,
No. 1, 2022, pp. 8972, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-12345-8.
[22] O. Isinkaralar, K. Isinkaralar, E. P. Bayraktar, Monitoring the Spatial Distribution Pattern According To Urban Land Use And Health Risk Assessment on Potential Toxic Metal Contamination Via Street Dust in Ankara, Türkiye, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment,
Vol. 195, No. 9, 2023, pp. 1085, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11705-9.
[23] AIRC, Agents Classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer Monographs, 2014, https://monographs.iarc.who.int/agents-classified-by-the-iarc/ (accessed on: February 1st, 2025).
[24] USEPA, Supplemental Guidance for Developing Soil Screening Levels for Superfund Sites, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response Washington DC, 2002, https://semspub.epa.gov/work/HQ/175878.pdf.
[25] USEPA, Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual Supplemental Guidance Standard Default Exposure Factors Interim Final.
[26] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991, https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-11/documents/OSWERdirective9285.6-03.pdf (accessed on: February 1st, 2025).
[27] N. T. Tran et al., Triple Burden of Malnutrition Among Vietnamese 0·5–11-year-old Children in 2020–2021: results of Seanuts II Vietnam, Public Health Nutrition, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2024, pp. e259, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980024001186.
[28] WHO, National Survey on the Risk Factors of Noncommunicable Diseases in Viet Nam, 2021, World Health Organization, Viet Nam, 2025, https://extranet.who.int/ncdsmicrodata/index.php/catalog/948/related-materials (accessed on: February 1st, 2025).
[29] A. Bourliva et al., Seasonal and Spatial Variations of Magnetic Susceptibility and Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Road Dusts of Thessaloniki City, Greece: A One-year Monitoring Period, Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 639, 2018, pp. 417-427, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.170.
[30] N. Ghanavati, A. Nazarpour,M. J. Watts, Status, Source, Ecological and Health Risk Assessment of Toxic Metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Pahs) in Street Dust of Abadan, Iran, CATENA, Vol. 177, 2019, pp. 246-259, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.02.022.
[31] E. Konstantinova et al., Pollution Status and Human Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Street Dust of Tyumen City, Russia, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2022, pp. 409-432, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00692-2.
[32] M. Kara, Assessment of Sources and Pollution State of Trace and Toxic Elements in Street Dust In a Metropolitan City, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 42, No. 10, 2020, pp. 3213-3229, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00560-z.
[33] F. J. Li, H. W. Yang, R. Ayyamperumal,Y. Liu, Pollution, Sources, and Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Urban Areas Around Industrialization and Urbanization-Northwest China, Chemosphere, Vol. 308, 2022, pp. 136396, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136396.
[34] M. Safiur Rahman et al., Assessing Risk to Human Health for Heavy Metal Contamination Through Street Dust in The Southeast Asian Megacity: Dhaka, Bangladesh, Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 660, 2019, pp. 1610-1622, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.425.
[35] M. Heidari, T. Darijani,V. Alipour, Heavy Metal Pollution of Road Dust in a City And Its Highly Polluted Suburb; Quantitative Source Apportionment and Source-Specific Ecological and Health Risk Assessment, Chemosphere,
Vol. 273, 2021, pp. 129656, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129656.
[36] R. U. Goyes et al., Street Dust from a Heavily-Populated and Industrialized City: Evaluation of Spatial Distribution, Origins, Pollution, Ecological Risks and Human Health Repercussions, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety,
Vol. 159, 2018, pp. 198-204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.04.054.
[37] H. Khademi et al., Distribution of Metal(Loid)s in Particle Size Fraction in Urban Soil and Street Dust: Influence of Population Density, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol. 42, No. 12, 2020, pp. 4341-4354, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00515-4.
[38] Q. Han et al., Health Risk Assessment and Bioaccessibilities of Heavy Metals for Children in Soil and Dust from Urban Parks and Schools of Jiaozuo, China, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 191, 2020, pp. 110157, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110157.