Assessment of Gas–Particle Phase Distribution and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Phthalate Esters and Volatile Methyl Siloxanes in Vietnamese Micro-Environments
Main Article Content
Abstract
In this study, the gas–particle distribution characteristics and emission sources of phthalate esters (PAEs) and volatile methyl siloxanes (VMSs) were evaluated for indoor air samples collected from different micro-environments such as homes, offices, kindergartens, hair salons, laboratories, and cars in 4 cities and provinces of Hanoi, Bac Ninh, Thai Binh, and Tuyen Quang, northern Vietnam. In general, total concentrations of PAEs and VMSs were higher in gas phase as compared to particle phase; however, phase distribution profiles of individual compounds were strongly related to their structures and physicochemical properties. For examples, low-molecular-weight compounds such as dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, D3, D4, L4, and L5 were more abundant in gas phase, while heavier compounds like di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and L8 were preferentially associated with particle phase. Assessment of PAE emission sources is relatively difficult because they have been applied in different consumer products and materials. Significant correlation between cyclic VMSs (e.g., D4, D5, and D6) was observed, suggesting their applications in cosmetics and personal care products.
Keywords: Phthalate esters, volatile methyl siloxanes, indoor air, phase distribution, source apportionment.
Keywords: Phthalate esters, volatile methyl siloxanes, indoor air, phase distribution, source apportionment.
References
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[2] C. Christia, G. Poma, S. Harrad, C.A. de Wit, Y. Sjostrom, P. Leonards, M. Lamoree, A. Covaci, Occurrence of legacy and alternative plasticizers in indoor dust from various EU countries and implications for human exposure via dust ingestion and dermal absorption. Environ. Res. 171 (2019) 204-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envres.2018.11.034.
[3] S. Net, R. Sempéré, A. Delmont, A. Paluselli, B. Ouddane, Occurrence, fate, behavior and ecotoxicological state of phthalates in different environmental matrices. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49(7) (2015) 4019-4035. https://doi.org/10.1021/ es505233b.
[4] K. Mojsiewicz-Pienkowska, D. Krenczkowska, Evolution of consciouness of exposure to siloxanes–review of publications. Chemosphere 191 (2018) 204–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chemosphere.2017.10.045.
[5] T.M. Tran, A.Q. Hoang, S.T. Le, T.B. Minh, K. Kannan, A review of contamination status, emission sources, and human exposure to volatile methyl siloxanes (VMSs) in indoor environments. Sci. Total Environ. 691 (2019) 584–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.168.
[6] K. Gaj, A. Pakuluk, Volatile methyl siloxanes as potential hazardous air pollutants. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 24(3) (2015) 937–943. https://doi.org/10. 15244/pjoes/34668.
[7] T.M. Tran, K. Kannan, Occurrence of cyclic and linear siloxanes in indoor air from Albany, New York, USA, and its implications for inhalation exposure. Sci. Total Environ. 511 (2015) 138-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.022.
[8] T.M. Tran, K.O. Abualnaja, G.A. Asimakopoulos, A. Covaci, B. Gevao, B. Johnson-Restrepo, A.T. Kumosani, G. Malarvannan, T.B. Minh, B.H. Moon, H. Nakata, K.R. Sinha, K. Kannan, A survey of cyclic and linear siloxanes in indoor dust and their implications for human exposures in twelve countries. Environ. Int. 78 (2015) 39-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.02.011.
[9] T.M. Tran, H.T. Le, N.D. Vu, G.H.M. Dang, T.B. Minh, K. Kannan, Cyclic and linear siloxanes in indoor air from several Northern cities in Vietnam: levels, spatial distribution and human exposure. Chemosphere 184 (2017) 1117–1124. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.06.092.
[10] T.M. Tran, T.B. Minh, N.D. Vu, Cyclic siloxanes in indoor environments from hair salons in Hanoi, Vietnam: emission sources, spatial distribution, and implications for human exposure. Chemosphere 212 (2018) 330–336. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.08.101.
[11] T.M. Tran, H.T. Le, T.B. Minh, K. Kannan, Occurrence of phthalate diesters in indoor air from several Northern cities in Vietnam, and its implication for human exposure. Sci. Total Environ. 601–602 (2018) 1695–1701. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.016.
[12] T.M. Tran, T.B. Minh, T.A. Kumosani, K. Kannan, Occurrence of phthalate diesters (phthalates), p-hydroxybenzoic acid esters (parabens), bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE) and their derivatives in indoor dust from Vietnam: Implications for exposure. Chemosphere 144 (2016) 1553–1559. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.10.028.
[13] H.Q. Anh, K. Tomioka, N.M. Tue, L.H. Tuyen, N.K. Chi, T.B. Minh, P.H. Viet, S. Takahashi, A preliminary investigation of 942 organic micro-pollutants in the atmosphere in waste processing and urban areas, northern Vietnam: Levels, potential sources, and risk assessment. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 167 (2019) 354–364. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.10.026.
[14] X. Wang, W. Tao, Y. Xu, J. Feng, F. Wang, Indoor phthalate concentration and exposure in residential and office buildings in Xi’an, China. Atmos. Environ. 87 (2014) 146−152. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.01.018.
[15] D. Koniecki, R. Wang, R.P. Moody, J. Zhu, Phthalates in cosmetic and personal care products: concentrations and possible dermal exposure. Environ. Res. 111(3) (2011) 329−336. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.envres.2011.01.013.
[16] J. Zhao, Y. Ji, Z. Zhu, W. Zhang, L. Zhang, J. Zhao, PAEs occurrence and sources in road dust and soil in/around parks in May in Tianjin, China. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 147 (2018) 238–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.08.014.
[17] T. Otake, J. Yoshinaga, Y. Yanagisawa, Exposure to phthalate esters from indoor environment. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 14 (2004) 524–528. https://www.nature.com/articles/7500352.
[18] A. Markiewicz, K. Bjorklund, E. Eriksson, Y. Kalmykova, A.M. Stromvall, A. Siopi, Emissions of organic pollutants from traffic and roads: priority pollutants selection and substance flow analysis. Sci. Total Environ. 580 (2017) 1162–1174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.074.
[19] H.Q. Anh, T.M. Tran, N.T.T. Thuy, T.B. Minh, S. Takahashi, Screening analysis of organic micro-pollutants in road dusts from some areas in northern Vietnam: A preliminary investigation on contamination status, potential sources, human exposure, and ecological risk. Chemosphere 224 (2019) 428–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chemosphere. 2019.02.177.
[20] Y. Horii, K. Kannan, Survey of organosilicone compounds, including cyclic and linear siloxanes, in personal-care and household products. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 55 (2008) 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-008-9172-z.
[21] L. Xu, Y. Shi, N. Liu, Y. Cai, Methyl siloxanes in environmental matrices and human/fat from both general industries and residential areas in China. Sci. Total Environ. 505 (2015) 454–463. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.10.039.
[22] L. Xu, L. Zhi, Y. Cai, Methylsiloxanes in children silicone-containing products from China: profiles, leaching, and children exposure. Environ. Int. 101 (2017) 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint. 2017.01.022.