Distribution of Phthalate Acid Esters in Indoor and Outdoor Air Samples Collected from Hanoi Metropolitan Areas in Vietnam
Main Article Content
Abstract
In this study, ten phthalic acid esters (PAEs) were measured in indoor and outdoor air samples collected from Hanoi metropolitan areas. The target compounds were adsorbed onto a solid adsorbent matrix (C18) with a low-speed pump and then analyzed on a gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The recoveries of surrogate standards ranged from 78.5 to 112% (RSD < 15%). The method detection limits of target compounds were in the range of 0.08-0.3 ng/m3. The total mean concentration of 10 PAEs in indoor and outdoor samples were in ranges of 1400-3710 ng/m3 and 178-487 ng/m3, respectively. Among PAEs, di-(2-ethyl)hexyl phthalate (DEHP) was found at the highest abundance and concentration. The distribution of PAEs in indoor air was higher significantly than those in outdoor air samples. Some pairs of PAEs (BzBP vs DCHP, DEHP vs DnHP, DnHP vs DnOP, and DEHP vs DnOP) had strong correlations and suggested that they are from the same source. Human exposure doses to PAEs through inhalation were estimated for two age groups (children and adults) based on the measured concentrations of PAEs in air, inhalation rates, and body weights. The estimated daily intake doses were in ranges of 29.7-750 ng/kg-bw/d and 7.29-181 ng/kg-bw/d for children and adults, respectively.
Keywords:
Phthalic acid esters; Air pollution; Indoor air; Outdoor air; Human exposure.
References
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[16] W. Li, L. Guo, J. Fang, L. Zhao, S. Song, T. Fang, C. Li, L. Wang, P. Li, Phthalates and phthalate metabolites in urine from Tianjin and implications for platelet mitochondrial DNA methylation. Front. Public Health. Vol. 11, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1108555
[17] Q. Chen, H. Yang, N. Zhou, L. Sun, H. Bao, J. Cao, Phthalate exposure, even below US EPA reference doses,. was associated with semen quality and reproductive hormones: Prospective MARHCS study in general population. Environ. Int. Vol. 104, 2017, pp. 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.04.005.
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[22] T. M. Tran, K., Kannan, Occurrence of phthalates diesters in particulate and vapor phases in indoor air and implications for human exposure in Albany, New York, USA. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. Vol. 68, 2015, 489–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0140-0
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[28] S. S. S. Rowdhwal, J. Chen, Toxic effects of Di-2-ethylhexyl Phthalate: an overview. Biomed Res. Int. 2018, 1750368. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1750368
[29] M. Xia, X. Ouyang, X. Wang, X. Shen, Y. Zhan, Occupational exposure assessment of phthalate acid esters in indoor and outdoor microenvironments. J. Environ. Sci. (China) Vol. 72, 2018, 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2017.12.013
[30] S. Abdi, S. Sobhanardakani, B. Lorestani, M. Cheraghi, A. H. Panahi, Analysis and health risk assessment of phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in indoor dust of preschool and elementary school centers in city of Tehran, Iran. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Vol. 28, 2021, pp. 61151–61162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14845-y
[31] Z. Liu, F. Zha, Y. Wang, B. Yuan, B. Liu, G. Tang, Vertical evolution of the concentrations and sources of volatile organic compounds in the lower boundary layer in urban Beijing in summer. Chemosphere Vol. 332, 2023, 138767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138767
[32] X. Y. Feng, X N. Feng, J. L. Zheng, X. Chen, L. Xiang, W. Y. Li, Y.Q. Cai, H. C. Mo, Occurrence and human health risks of phthalates in indoor air of laboratories. Sci. Total Environ. Vol. 9697, 2019, pp. 35604-35609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135609
[33] J. M. Teil, E. Moreau-Guigon, M. Blanchard, F. Alliot, J. Gasperi, M. Cladiere, C. Mandin, S. Moukhtar, M. Chevreuil, Endocrine-disrupting compounds in gaseous and particulate outdoor air phases according to environmental factors. Chemosphere Vol. 146, 2016, pp. 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.12.015
[34] H. S. Jo, H. K. Kim, H. Y. Kim, A novel quantitation method for phthalates in air using a combined thermal desorption/ gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry application. Anal. Chim. Acta. Vol. 944, 2016, pp. 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2016.09.037.
[35] Y. Li, J. Wang, B. Ren, H. Wang, L. Qiao, J. Zhu, L. Li, The characteristics of atmospheric phthalates in Shanghai: a haze case study and human exposure assessment. Atmos. Environ. Vol. 178, 2018, pp. 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.01.042
[36] A. R. Cichowicz, M. Dobrzanski, Indoor and outdoor concentrations of particulate matter and gaseous pollutants on different floors of a University building: A case study. J. Ecol. Eng. Vol. 22, 2021, 162–173. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/128859
[37] Y. C. Huo, Y. L. Liu., H. Hung, Y. Sun, Q. J. Guo, K. Y. Wu, E. Sverko, L. W. Li, Accumulations and equilibrium conditions of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in the indoor window film and the estimation of concentrations in air. Sci. Total Environ. Vol. 848, 2020, 157724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157724
[38] G. F. Calvo-Flores, J. Isac-Garcia, A. J. Dobado, Industrial Chemicals as Emerginh Pollutant. In: Calvo-Flores, FG, Isac-Garcia, J., Dobado, JA (Eds.) Emerging Pollutants: Origin, Structure, and Properties. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2018, pp. 265–340. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527691203.ch9.
[39] A. R. Rudel, J. L. Perovich, Endocrine disrupting chemicals in indoor and outdoor air. Atmos. Environ. Vol. 43, 2009, 170–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.025
[40] Toxicology Program (NTP) - US Department of Health and Human Services - Center for the evaluation of risks to human reproduction (NTP-CERHR), 2003. Monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of Di-n -hexyl PAE (DnHP), NIH Publication, No. 03–4489.
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