Study on the Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Fingernail and Hair Samples by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)
Main Article Content
Abstract
Information about human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Vietnam is still very limited. In this study, an accurate method for the determination of 16 PAHs in human hair and fingernail samples was developed. The nail and hair samples were digested in sodium hydroxide solution. PAHs in the digested solutions were extracted using organic solvents such as hexane and dichloromethane. The extracts were cleaned up by using solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridges containing silica gel with dichloromethane/hexane mixture as elution solvent. PAHs were quantified by a gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) system operated in electron impact ionization and selected ion monitoring (EI/SIM) mode. The liquid-liquid extraction and SPE clean-up steps were investigated to obtain acceptable recovery of PAHs before application to nail and hair samples. Recovery of PAHs in spiked nail and hair samples ranged from 66% to 112%, indicating acceptable method accuracy. Concentrations of 16 PAHs in the nail and hair samples were 160 and 733 ng/g, respectively. Major PAHs found in the nail and hair samples were naphthalene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, and pyrene. Additional studies on human biomonitoring of PAHs and their related compounds should be conducted in Vietnam.
Keywords:
PAHs, fingernail, hair, GC/MS.
References
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[3] A. M. Calafat, Z. Kuklenyik, J. A. Reidy, S. P. Caudill, J. Ekong, L. L. Needham, Urinary Concentrations of Bisphenol a and
4-Nonylphenol in a Human Reference Population, Environ. Health Perspect., Vol. 133, 2005,
pp. 391-395, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7534.
[4] K. Fent, Ecotoxicological Effects at Contaminated Sites, Toxicology, Vol. 205, 2004, pp. 223-240, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2004.06.060.
[5] K. Sun, Y. Song, F. He, M. Jing, J. Tang, R. Liu, A Review of Human and Animals Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Health Risk and Adverse Effects, Photo- Induced Toxicity and Regulating Effect of Microplastics, Sci. Total Environ, Vol. 773, 2021, pp. 145403, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145403.
[6] G. Fillmann, G. M. Watson, M. Howsam, E. Francioni, M. H. Depledge, J. W. Readman, Urinary PAH Metabolites as Biomarkers of Exposure in Aquatic Environments, Environ. Sci. Technol., Vol. 38, 2004, pp. 2649-2656, https://doi.org/10.1021/es0350839.
[7] O. Alshaarawy, H. A. Elbaz, M. E. Andrew, The Association of Urinary Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Biomarkers and Cardiovascular Disease in the US Population, Environ. Int., Vol. 89-90, 2016, pp. 174-178,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.02.006.
[8] T. Zhou, Z. Li, F. Zhang, X. Jiang, W. Shi, L. Wu, P. Christie, Concentrations of Arsenic, Cadmium and Lead in Human Hair and Typical Foods in Eleven Chinese Cities, Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol., Vol. 48, 2016, pp. 150-156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2016.10.010.
[9] S. Yin, M. Tang, F. Chen, T. Li, W. Liu, Environmental Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): The Correlation with and Impact on Reproductive Hormones in Umbilical Cord Serum, Environ. Int., Vol. 220, 2017, pp. 1429-1437, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.090.
[10] S. N. Zhou, A, Buchar, S. Siddique, L. Takser, N. Abdelouahab, J. Zhu, Measurements of Selected Brominated Flame Retardants in Nursing Women: Implications for Human Exposure, Environ. Sci. Technol. Vol. 48, 2014, pp. 8873-8880, https://doi.org/10.1021/es5016839.
[11] E. Gaudreau, R. Berune, J. F. Bienvenu, N. Fleury, Stability Issues in the Determination of 19 Urinary (Free and Conjugated) Monohydroxy Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., Vol. 408, 2016, pp. 4021-4033, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-016-9491-2.
[12] A. Alves, A. Covaci, S. Voorpoels, Method Development for Assessing The Human Exposure to Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Hair and Nails, Chemosphere, Vol. 168, 2017, pp. 692-698, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.11.006.
[13] C. Wang, S. Zhou, S. Wu, J. Tang, H. Li, J. Du, Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in People Living in Urban and Rural Areas as Revealed by Hair Analysis, Chemosphere, Vol. 246, 2020, pp. 125764, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125764.
[14] M. Lin, J. Tang, S. Ma, Y. Yu, G. Li, R. Fan, B. Mai, T. An, Insights Into Biomonitoring of Human Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons with Hair Analysis: A Case Study in E-Waste Recycling Area, Environ. Int.,
Vol. 136, 2020, pp. 105432, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105432.
[15] F. S. Cai, B. Tang, J. Zheng, Z. Yan, W. K. Luo, M. He, X. J. Luo, M. Z. Ren, Y. J. Yu, B. X. Mai, Fetal Exposure to Organic Contaminants Revealed by Infant Hair: A Preliminary Study in South China, Environ. Pollut., Vol. 316, 2023, pp. 120536, https://doi.org/10.1002/bmc.222.
[16] D. Lu, C. Feng, Y. Lin, D. Wang, H. S. S. Ip, X. Qiu, G. Wang, J. She, Determination of Organochlorines, Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Human Hair: Estimation of External and Internal Exposure, Chemosphere, Vol. 114, 2014, pp. 327-226, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.04.109.
[17] A. Toriba, Y. Kuramae, T. Chetiyanulornkul, R. Kizu, T. Makino, H. Nakazawa, K. Hayakawa, Quantification of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Human Hair by HPLC with Fluorescence Detection: A Biological Monitoring Method to Evaluate The Exposure to PAHs, Biomed. Chromatogr., Vol. 17, 2003, pp. 126-132, https://doi.org/10.1002/bmc.222.
[18] T. Hasei, A. Ohno, R. Tsukuda, T. Inoue, T. Watanabe, Determination of 3,6-Dinitrobenzo[e]pyrene in Tea Leaves as a Possible Exposure Source and in Human Hair as a Biomarker Using a Two-dimensional HPLC System, J. Health Sci., Vol. 57, 2011, pp. 53-59, https://doi.org/10.1248/jhs.57.53.
[19] W. Wang, M. J. Huang, C. Y. Chan, K. C. Cheung, M. H. Wong, Risk Assessment of Non-dietary Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) via House PM2.5, TSP and Dust and the Implications from Human Hair, Atmos. Environ., Vol. 73, 2013, pp. 204-213, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.03.007.
[20] US EPA, Method 610: Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, 1984, https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-10/documents/method_610_1984.pdf/, 2015 (accessed on: January 8th, 2024).
[21] US EPA, Method 625.1: Base/Neutrals and Acids by GC/MS, 2016, https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-08/documents/method_625-1_2016.pdf/, 2017 (accessed on: January 8th, 2024).
[22] Y. Yamamoto, A. Ishizaki, H. Kataoka, Biomonitoring Method For the Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Hair By Online In-Tube Solid-Phase Microextraction Coupled with High Performance Liquid Chromatography and Fluorescence Detection, J. Chromatogr. B, Vol. 1000, 2015, pp. 187-191, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2015.07.033.
[23] P. T. Vi, N. T. Ngoc, T. T. Kim, N. T. Quynh, D. H. Anh, P. H. Viet, Dertermination of PAHs Content in Hair Sample of Smokers and Non-smokers Using Gas Chromatography in Hyphenation with Mass Spectrometry, VNU Journal of Science: Natural Sciences and Technology, Vol. 35, No. 3, 2019, pp. 108-117, https://doi.org/10.25073/2588-1140/vnunst.4916.
[24] S. Ma, Z. Zeng, M. Lin, J. Tang, Y. Yang, Y. Yu, G. Li, T. An, PAHs and Their Hydroxylated Metabolites in the Human Fingernails from E-Waste Dismantlers: Implications for Human Non-Invasive Biomonitoring and Exposure, Environ. Pollut., Vol. 283, 2021, pp. 117059, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117059.
[25] E. Mendelsohn, A. Hagopian, K, Hoffman, C. M. Butt, A. Lorenzo, J. Congleton, T. F. Webster,
H. M. Stapleton, Nail Polish as a Source of Exposure to Triphenyl Phosphate, Environ. Int., Vol. 86, 2016, pp. 45-51,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.10.005.
[26] Z. Zeng, Y. Gao, J. Gui, M. Lin, J. Tang, F. Wang, Y. Yang, Y. Yu, S. Ma, Liquid-liquid Extraction Combined with Online Cleanup for the Simultaneous Determination of PAHs by GC–MS/MS and Their Hydroxylated Metabolites by LC-MS/MS in Human Fingernails, J. Chromatogr. B, Vol. 1188, 2022, pp. 123057, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.123057.